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| Home > Jain Education & Literature > Jain Frequently Asked Questions |
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| Jain FAQ 1.
I’ve heard about Jain people starving themselves to death.
What is the story behind this? 1.
I’ve heard about Jain people starving themselves to death.
What is the story behind this? Sallekhana is known as a religious death in Jainism. It does involve a gradual process of the cessation of consumption of food. However, it is a very sacred and controlled process; it must be performed by a person who truly understands central principles and by one who has committed to certain vows. Jain
writers have always been adamant that the voluntary death of
sallekhana, which is exclusively directed towards the
soul and must be performed with a sacred formula on one’s
lips (MA 94), is in no way equivalent to an act of suicide and
they contrast it with various forms of the ‘fool’s
death’, types of suicide carried out through despair or
inadequacy which involve violence to one’s body.
Sallekhana cannot be suicide, Akalanka argued,
because it would have to involve the passions, as well as the
probable use of poisons or weapons (TSRV p. 550). Sallekhana
(also called samthara, ‘death-bed’, its designation
among Shvetambaras today), is presented as requiring the controlling
involvement of a teacher as presiding guide during the whole
process and, furthermore, as being a form of death accessible
to lay people. Dundas, The Jains. Pg. 155-6. 2.
What are the different sects in Jainism?
The
two major sects in Jainism are Digambars and Swetambars (spellings
may vary). Digambar
monks are ‘sky-clad,’ meaning that they wear no
cloths. Digambars are further divided
into 1) murtipujaks and 2) nonmurtipujaks. Murtipujaks
engage in idol worship, whereas nonmurtipujaks do not. Digambar
murtipujaks are further divided into 1) Bisapanthi (Bhattarak
Tradition- complex rituals) and 2) Terah-panthi (Banarasidas-
18th C; he liberalized the sect and introduced simple
rituals). Digambar
nonmurtipujaks are also further subdivided into 1) Taran-panthis
(Taran-taran swami).
1. Acharang 2. Sutra-kratang 3. Sthanang 4. Samavay-ang 5. Vhakhya-prajnapti or Bhavavati 6. Jnata-dharma-kathang 7. Upasaka-dashang 8. Antahkra-dashang 9. Anuttaroupa-patika-dashang 10. Prashna-vyakran 11. Vipaka-sutra 12. Drishti-pravada or Drishtivad
2)
Angbahya-agam: These were composed by monks who were
known as srut-kevlis- they possessed the total knowledge
of reality (soul, matter and their relationship, etc.) through
scriptures. They wrote many texts (sutras),
expanding the subject matter of the Ang-agams.
Collectively these are known as the angbhaya-agams.
Different Jain sects accept different numbers of these
agams. Digambars believe in 14, where
as Swetambar murtipujaks believe in 34 and Swetambar nonmurtipujaks
believe in 21. The
Digambar’s 14 ang-bahya agams are as follows: 1. Samayik 2. Samstava 3. Vandana 4. Prati-kraman 5. Vinaya 6. Kriti-karma 7. Das-vaikalik 8. Uttar-adhyayan 9. Kalpa-vyavahara 10. Kalpa-kalpa 11. Mahakalpa-sanjnaka 12. Pundarika 13. Maha-pundarika
14.
Nishidika Digambars
believe that all 14 ang-bahya agams became extinct between
364 BC to 157 AD. Swetambars
believe in different combinations of the following types of
agams:
1.
Upang agams- provide further explanation of Ang-agams 3. Mul-sutra agams- these are essential for ascetics in the earlier stages of their monkhood 4. Chulika-sutra agams- these further enhance the meaning of the ang-agams
5.
Prakirna agams- these describe independent or miscellaneous
subjects Some texts that are more popular to modern readers are the following:
1)
Tattvarthadhigam sutra written by Umaswami in 200 AD, this is
the only main scripture that is agreed upon, in its entirety,
by all Jain sects. 3) Avasyaka (from the Swetambar Mul-sutra agams). This book contains a description of daily rituals, including samayik and pratikraman. 4. What are the 12 vows that a Jain layperson should take?
The next three are called gunavrats (‘merit vows’). They are as follows:
The last four are called siksha vratas (‘disciplinary vows’). They are as follows:
5.
Does Jainism believe in a heaven and hell? Jainism
believes that the universe (lokakas) consists of an upper
world (heaven), a middle world (where humans are), and a lower
world (hell). However, this does not
correspond to the traditional Christian concepts of heaven,
earth and hell. The
upper world consists of what we traditionally consider a heaven.
However, it contains several “levels” of
heavens. There are either 12 of 16 devloks
(‘levels’) of heavens. The
upper world also contains 9 graiveks, 5 anuttaras
and Moksha- the place where liberated souls (souls that
have broken out of the cycle of birth and death) reside. The
middle world is where humans, animals and plants reside.
However, it is important to note that this middle world
extends far beyond what we conceive of as the Milky Way galaxy
and other known galaxies. The vastness
of the middle world is well beyond the scope of modern science. The
lower world consists of what we traditionally consider hell.
However, there are 7 levels of hells, each one becoming
consistently worse and more hellish than the next. Another important aspect to consider about the Jain concepts of heaven and hell is the fact that they are not eternal places where souls reside. Thus, if a soul is in heaven, it can, in a consequent rebirth, come back down to the middle world. Likewise, a soul in the lower world can be reborn again into the middle world. This is part of the idea embodied in the karma theory. 6.
What is the significance of the materials used in Jain pujas? There
are different types of pujas that are performed for various
religious and social ceremonies. The
following is a list of the 8 most commonly used materials and
their meanings:
1.
Jala puja (water): Water
symbolizes the ocean. Every living being
continuously travels through the Life Ocean of birth, life,
death and misery. This puja reminds us
that one should live life with honesty, truthfulness, love and
compassion toward all living beings. This
way one will be able to cross the Life Ocean and attain Moksha-
liberation. The path of liberation is
Samyak Darshan (Right faith), Samyak Gnan (Right knowledge)
and Samyak Charitra (Right conduct).
2.
Chandan Puja (sandalwood):
Chandan symbolizes knowledge (gnan). During
this puja, one should reflect on Samyak Gnan (right knowledge).
Right knowledge means proper understanding of reality
which includes the soul, karma and their relationship.
Jainism believes that the Path of Knowledge is the main
path to attain liberation. Bhakti or
devotion helps in the early stages of one’s effort for
liberation.
3.
Pushpa Puja (flower): Flowers
symbolize conduct. Our conduct should
be like a flower, which provides fragrance and beauty to all
living beings with discrimination. We
should live our life like flowers—full of love and compassion
toward all living beings.
4.
Deepak Puja (candle): The
flame of Deepak represents a pure consciousness or a soul without
bondage – a liberated soul. In
Jainism, such a soul is called a Siddha or God.
The ultimate goal of every living being is to become
liberated from karma. By doing this puja,
one should strive to follow the five great vows: non-violence,
truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity and non-possession.
Ultimately, proper conduct in this respect, coupled with
right faith and knowledge, will lead to liberation.
5.
Akshat Puja (rice): Household
rice is grain seed which is non-fertile. One cannot grow rice
plants by seeding household rice. Symbolically,
it means that rice is the last birth. By
doing this puja, one should strive to put all effort in this
life in such a way that this life become one’s last life,
meaning that one’s soul will be liberated and will have
exited the cycle of birth and death.
6.
Naivedya Puja (sweets): Naivedya
symbolizes tasty foods. By doing this
puja, one should strive to reduce the attachment to tasty food.
Healthy food is essential for survival, however tasty food is
a luxury. The ultimate aim is to liberate
the soul from the cycle of birth and death; liberated souls
no longer need food to survive, and this type of puja helps
us remember that. 7. Fal Puja (fruit): Fruit symbolizes Moksha or liberation. If we live our life without any attachment to worldly affairs, perform our duties without any expectations of rewards, follow ascetic lives and have a love and compassion to all living beings, we will attain the fruit of Moksha or liberation. This is the last Puja, symbolizing the ultimate achievement of our life. 7.
What is the Jain position on receiving immunizations? The
following answer is from Gabriel, who responded to a Jain Friends
posting.
8.
Why are many Jains businessmen? Why are
there restrictions on occupations for Jains? The
following answer is from Professor Padmanabh Jaini: Six
modes of livelihood – government (asi), writing
(masi), farming
(krsi), the arts (vidya), commerce (vanijya),
and various crafts (silpa)—have been designated
as “respectable” by Jaina teachers.
In practice, however, followers of the Jina have been
strongly encouraged to enter those professions which have the
least potential for violence; hence statecraft and agriculture
have come to be considered somewhat less desirable occupations,
while the career of a merchant is seen as most appropriate.
Even within the context of commercial activity, certain
varieties of trade have been specifically prohibited for one
who has entered upon a path of restraint. These
include dealing in charcoal; selling timber; selling or driving
oxcarts; charging fees for transport by oxcart; excavation;
plowing and quarrying; dealing in animal by-products, for example
ivory; trading in lac; manufacturing or selling alcohol or other
substances prohibited under the mulaguna; trading in slaves
or livestock; dealing in poisons or weapons; operating mills
or oilpresses; gelding and branding animals; burning fields
to encourage subsequent agricultural production; draining water
so that crops can be planted; breeding destructive animals.
9.
Is it true that Jains are not supposed to eat after the Sun
goes down? This
is true, as it’s prescribed by the second of the gunavratas
(‘merit vows’) for Jain householders.
The following reason is offered by Professor Padmanabh
Jaini: Second
[of the gunavratas] is the bhogopabhoga-parimanavrata,
which legislates against the use of certain items or the performance
of certain tasks. … But the most important aspect of this
vrata is its ban on eating (or cooking) at night (ratri-bhojana).
Indeed, the practice of preparing and consuming food
only before sunset has become so widespread among Jainas that
it is popularly considered one of the mulagunas.
This rule can be readily understood if one recalls the
large numbers of flying insects which populate the Indian household
after dark; a cooking fire will certainly draw many to their
deaths, and others may be inadvertently consumed along with
any food taken at that time. Jainas also
subscribe to the widely held folk belief that going to bed with
a full stomach tends to increase the level of one’s passions,
hence should be avoided. Jaini,
Padmanabh. Jaina Path of Purification.
Pg. 179. 10.
What does Jainism say about non-believers (i.e. people who do
not follow the Jina)? As
a religion of universal love and compassion for all living beings,
Jainism does not “condemn” nonbelievers, nor does
it claim to know their ultimate destinies. However,
Jainism does place all human beings—both followers and
non-followers of the Jina—into the 14 gunasthanas
(‘stages of spiritual development’).
Thus,
non-believers are placed into the first rung of the stages of
spiritual development. This stage is
known as Mithyadrsti. The
following is a description by Professor Padmanabh Jaini: “Mithyadrsti:
The lowest state, in which the soul suffers from ‘wrong
views’ (mithya-darsana) because of the presence of darsana-mohaniya
karmas and the ananta-nubandhi type of passions (kasaya).” As
delineated in Professor Jaini’s description, darsana-mohaniya
karmas- or ‘faith/insight-deluding’ karmas- plague
a non-believer, causing him or her to remain in this lowest
rung of spiritual development. This is
a state of delusion and erroneous concepts of the world mechanisms.
Only
souls which pass through the 14 stages are able to be liberated.
However, these souls can progress from this first stage.
The following prescription is offered by scholar Hermann
Kuhn: “If
we want to find our way out of this stage, we need to introduce
new components to our life that open opportunities for growth.
Otherwise, it lasts eternally.” Thus,
even non-believers can move past this stage to attain liberation.
11.
What is the Jain view of evolution- particularly the evolution
of human beings? Jains
do not subscribe to the typical western/Darwinian view of evolution.
Rather, their own “brand” of evolution emerges
from their conceptual representation of time.
Viewing time as a “cycle” with no beginning
and no end, Jains divide the time cycle into two halves- a descending
half and an ascending half. These halves
are further subdivided into six parts (for a more thorough description
of the Jain time cycle, please see the question on time).
Each
portion becomes subsequently “worse” than the previous
portion. Thus, the first portion represents
a very serene time for human beings, and the sixth portion represents
a very tumultuous time. We are currently
in the 2600 year of the 5th portion of the descending
half of the time cycle, which lasts 21,000 years. Lawrence
Babb provides a description of life during the various portions
of the time cycle. “When
a descending half-cycle begins, all human wants are effortlessly
satisfied by wish-fulfilling trees, and human beings attain
an age of three playas (presumably addhapalyas)
and a height of 6 miles. By contrast,
the last age is a time of extreme discomfort and lawlessness;
miserable, dwarfish, with a height of one and one-half feet,
humans live a mere twenty years.” Babb,
Lawrence. Ascetics and Kings in a
Jain Ritual Culture. Pg. 42. Thus,
Jains too believe in a very specific kind of evolution- one
that is determined by a humans place in the time cycle. 12.
Why is “Jain” sometimes spelled “Jaina”? Words
often have an inherent “a” (pronounced ‘uh’
as in ‘under’) sound at the end of them.
Though English is not very particular about this sound
(many English words are not pronounced phonetically), Indian
languages are very particular about sound. Thus,
the word “Jain”, spelled in Hindi or Gujarati, does
contain the inherent “a” sound at the end.
In order to negate this sound, a special marker is placed
under the particular letter. Thus,
when we attempt to translate the word “Jain” from
Prakrit or Sanskrit, we may spell it with our without the “a”,
simply because when spoken, it does contain an “a”
sound at the end. You will find this
with many other words that have been translated from Indian
languages into English. 13.
Why is there no caste system in Jainism? Jains
believe that all souls are ultimately equal in nature because
every soul is capable of becoming liberated.*
Thus, though we may, in our human forms, take on different
occupations and stations in life, we are, at the core, equals.
We determine our own paths by acquiring certain karma.
Those who are in some way “lesser” in occupation,
wealth, mental capacity, etc. are still capable of attaining
the same goals as those with more desirable qualities. Thus,
the idea of caste system to “track” people throughout
their lives is not consistent with the tenets of Jainism.
Professor Padmanabh Jaini offers further explanation: “The
‘unreachable’ nature of a Jina renders the presence
of any priest or other intermediary, such as one normally finds
in traditions more oriented towards the hope of divine intervention,
virtually unnecessary in a Jaina temple. Hence
the Jaina community has for the most part never developed a
special priestly caste analogous to that of the brahmans in
Hinduism. Laymen are encouraged to carry
out ritual services on their own, either individually or in
a group. “Svetambaras
in particular have been loath to give over the performance of
ceremonial functions to a caste of specialists; they may delegate
to certain individuals the regular responsibility for cleaning
the temple and washing and decorating the images, but such people
are by no means priests.” Jaini,
Padmanabh. Jaina Path of Purification.
Pg. 195. 14.
Why do Jains stories incorporate Hindu gods? The
following perspective is offered by Professor Padmanabh Jaini: “The
great devotional movement (bhakti) which swept India
around the fifth or sixth century has already been mentioned,
in connection with the collapse of Buddhism.
While numerous mythological figures became the object
of such cult worship, two stood far above all others in terms
of their power to capture the popular imagination and to generate
large followings. They were of course
Rama and Krsna, the great heroes whose exploits were described
in the widely told stories of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata,
respectively, and who were raised to the status of Visnu-avatara
by the epics and by the Puranas of the early medieval period.
Had Jaina teachers ignored the tremendous fascination
which these figures held for the average layperson, regardless
of his religious affiliation, they would have done so at the
peril of their own society’s disintegration. “Thus
we see in Jaina literature of the period the development of
a parallel set of myths, placing Rama and Krsna in a Jaina context
and treating their respective deeds from the standpoint of Jaina
ethics.” Jaini,
Padmanabh. Jaina Path of Purification.
Pg. 304. 15.
Does Jainism believe that Krishna went to hell for his actions? The
following description is offered by Professor Padmanabh Jaini: “As
for Krsna, the hero of the Mahabharata, his various exploits
(both sexual and violent) were so well-known that making him
into a Jaina hero was a bit too difficult to manage.
Thus he was given the narayana [hero’s companion
or ally] role, and his elder brother Balarama was depicted as
the great upholder of the Jina’s teachings…. “These
are based on canonical accounts wherein it is prophesied that
Krsna will be reborn in hell… It should be noted that
Jaina authors, while condemning Krsna to hell for his homicidal
actions, were anxious to ‘rehabilitate’ him.
Perhaps with an eye to his great popularity, they suggested
(following the canon) that after completing his karmic term
in the nether regions (sometime during the next half-cycle)
he would be reborn in Bharataksetra and become a Tirthankara.” Jaini,
Padmanabh. Jaina Path of Purification.
Pg. 305, footnote 54. Although
it is true that acquiring flowers for puja is a violent act,
flowers possess a very special meaning during puja.
The following description is offered by Pravin Shah:
“Pushpa
Puja is puja involving flowers. Flowers
symbolize conduct. Our conduct should
be like a flower, which provides fragrance and beauty to all
living beings with discrimination. We
should live our life like flowers—full of love and compassion
toward all living beings.” However,
many Jains still believe that such a violent act should be eliminated
from puja and worship altogether. Such
was the belief of Banarsidas, a Jain spiritual leader in the
late sixteenth century. He was so affected
by the involvement of violence in puja and other aspects of
Jain rituals, that he started a reform movement during this
time. “A
devout student and translator of the works of Kundakunda, Banarasidas
was deeply offended by the lax behavior of the bhattarakas and
also convinced that the amount of ritual associated with temple
worship was excessive. Citing the high
degree of himsa [violence] involved in offering flowers, fruits,
and sweets in temple services, he called for the omission of
such offerings from the layman’s daily religious practice.
According to Banarasidas, emphasis should rather be placed
upon internal forms of worship (meditation); this contention
he supported with convincing doctrinal arguments made from the
niscaya (nonconventional, that is absolute) point of view so
important in Kundakunda’s philosophy.” Jaini,
Padmanabh. Jaina Path of Purification.
Pg. 311. 17.
What is the Jain view of war? Can a Jain
fight in a war? “Jaina
mendicants have clearly exerted great efforts to avoid personally
harming any living thing; but their record on the issue
of condoning violent behavior is less clear.
We have seen the role of acaryas in abetting the establishment
of kingdoms; this must have taken place under circumstances
in which the candidate had to engage in warfare in order to
secure his throne. As has also been noted,
great Jaina generals were not condemned by mendicant leaders
for their violent actions; on the contrary, their high position
in the state was seen as a boon to the entire religious community.
Jaina literature, moreover, is by no means pacifist (in
the sense that Quakers are, for example): only aggressive war
is proscribed, while the subject of fighting in defense of one’s
country is passed over almost without comment.
As for a Jaina layman’s personal responsibility
in time of war, it has never been confronted directly.
Jainas have not produced any text similar to the Bhagavad
Gita, in which the ethical problems of the warrior are
discussed from the brahmanical standpoint. The
acaryas’ silence on this issue has perhaps been due to
the fact that most Jainas, not being of the ksatriya caste,
have not been called upon to engage in warfare anyway.
Even so, it is a serious indictment of a tradition so
closely associated with the ideal of nonviolence that it could
have remained ambivalent, or at best noncommittal, on the subject
of warfare.” Jaini,
Padmanabh. Jaina Path of Purification.
Pg. 313. 18.
Is it true that Jains influenced Mahatma Gandhi? “The
image of the Jaina as a man of peace and goodwill is strongly
imprinted on the Indian psyche; and indeed, it can be said that
the Jaina community has often been a morally uplifting factor
in the life of Indian society as a whole. In
this connection might be mentioned Mahatma Gandhi—perhaps
the greatest champion of nonviolence in our age.
Gandhi claimed to have been deeply influenced, particularly
in the development of his theory of ahimsa as a political weapon,
by the revered Jaina layman Raychandbhai Mehta.
“’Three
persons have influenced me deeply, Tolstoy, Ruskin and Raychandbhai:
Tolstoy through one of his books… and Raychandbhai through
intimate personal contact. When I began
to feel doubts about Hinduism as a religion, it was Raychandbhai
who helped me to resolve them.’ M.K. Gandhi 1958-1976:
XXXII, 4. “On
the life and works of Raychandbhai Mehta (1868-1901), known
to his devotees as Srimad Rajacandra…” Jaini,
Padmanabh. Jaina Path of Purification.
Pg. 314-5, footnote 64. 19.
Is it true that Mahavir and Buddha were contemporaries? Mahavir
and Buddha did in fact live during the same time period, and
were both born in the same geographical area in |
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__Copyright
2004 Federaton of Jain Assocations in North America |
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